Smart et al. Book It seeks to explore shortcomings in the current employment of the concept of consensus, and in so doing to explain the continued relevance of conflict theory for sociological research. While some graduates have acquired and drawn upon specialised skill-sets, many have undertaken employment pathways that are only tangential to what they have studied. Savage, M. (2003) A new class paradigm? British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (4): 535541. develop the ideas in his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936). Conversely, traditional middle-class graduates are more able to add value to their credentials and more adept at exploiting their pre-existing levels of cultural capital, social contacts and connections (Ball, 2003; Power and Whitty, 2006). This review has shown that the problem of graduate employability maps strongly onto the shifting dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market. This tends to be reflected in the perception among graduates that, while graduating from HE facilitates access to desired employment, it also increasingly has a limited role (Tomlinson, 2007; Brooks and Everett, 2009; Little and Archer, 2010). Google Scholar. Careerist students, for instance, were clearly imaging themselves around their future labour market goals and embarking upon strategies in order to maximise their future employment outcomes and enhance their perceived employability. Critically inclined commentators have also gone as far as to argue that the skills agenda is somewhat token and that skills built into formal HE curricula are a poor relation to the real and embodied depositions that traditional academic, middle-class graduates have acquired through their education and wider lifestyles (Ainley, 1994). This tends to be mediated by a range of contextual variables in the labour market, not least graduates relations with significant others in the field and the specific dynamics inhered in different forms of employment. Such notions of economic change tend to be allied to human capital conceptualisations of education and economic growth (Becker, 1993). They construct their individual employability in a relative and subjective manner. Research by Tomlinson (2007) has shown that some students on the point of transiting to employment are significantly more orientated towards the labour market than others. (2007) Round and round the houses: The Leitch review of skills, Local Economy 22 (2): 111117. The inter-relationship between HE and the labour market has been considerably reshaped over time. Similar to the Bowman et al. (2003) Higher Education and Social Class: Issues of Exclusion and Inclusion, London: Routledge. (2010) From student to entrepreneur: Towards a model of entrepreneurial career-making, Journal of Education and Work 23 (5): 389415. Kupfer, A. Brown and Hesketh's (2004) research has clearly shown the competitive pressures experienced by graduates in pursuit of tough-entry and sought-after employment, and some of the measures they take to meet the anticipated recruitment criteria of employers. The underlying assumption of this view is that the Smetherham, C. (2006) The labour market perceptions of high achieving UK graduates: The role of the first class credential, Higher Education Policy 19 (4): 463477. Name one consensus theory and one conflict theory. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Increasingly, graduates employability needs to be embodied through their so-called personal capital, entailing the integration of academic abilities with personal, interpersonal and behavioural attributes. Individual employability is defined as alumnus being able . Instead, they now have greater potential to accumulate a much more extensive portfolio of skills and experiences that they can trade-off at different phases of their career cycle (Arthur and Sullivan, 2006). (1972) Graduates: The Sociology of an Elite, London: Methuen. Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family It will further show that while common trends are evident across national context, the HElabour market relationship is also subject to national variability. - 91.200.32.231. Introduction The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. In relation to the more specific graduate attributes agenda, Barrie (2006) has called for a much more fine-grained conceptualisation of attributes and the potential work-related outcomes they may engender. Consensus theories posit that laws are created using group rational to determine what behaviors are deviant and/or criminal to protect society from harm. In the context of a knowledge economy, consensus theory advocates that knowledge, skills and innovation are the driving factors of our society. Some graduates early experience may be empowering and confirm existing dispositions towards career development; for others, their experiences may confirm ambivalent attitudes and reinforce their sense of dislocation. Applying a broad concept of 'employability' as an analytical framework, it considers the attributes and experiences of 190 job seekers (22% of the registered unemployed) in two contiguous travel-to-work areas (Wick and Sutherland) in the northern Highlands of Scotland. The differentiated and heterogeneous labour market that graduates enter means that there is likely to be little uniformity in the way students constructs employability, notionally and personally. (2009) Processes of middle-class reproduction in a graduate employment scheme, Journal of Education and Work 22 (1): 3553. Rae, D. (2007) Connecting enterprise and graduate employability: Challenges to the higher education curriculum and culture, Education + Training 49 (8/9): 605619. The research by Archer et al. Eurostat. Johnston, B. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . This is perhaps reflected in the increasing amount of new, modern and niche forms of graduate employment, including graduate sales mangers, marketing and PR officers, and IT executives. Keynes's theory suggested that increases in government spending, tax cuts, and monetary expansion could be used to counteract depressions. Argues that even employable people may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the knowledge-driven economy. (2005) Empowering participants or corroding learning: Towards a research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education, Journal of Education Policy 20 (3): 267281. The purpose of this study is to explain the growth and popularity of consensus theory in present day sociology. As a wider policy narrative, employability maps onto some significant concerns about the shifting interplays between universities, economy and state. It was not uncommon for students participating, for example, in voluntary or community work to couch these activities in terms of developing teamworking and potential leadership skills. Consensus theory is a social theory that holds a particular political or economic system as a fair system, and that social change should take place within the social institutions provided by it .Consensus theory contrasts sharply with conflict theory, which holds that social change is only achieved through conflict.. This research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees qualifications. The perspective gained much currency in the mid 20th century in the works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom . Chapter 1 1. The review has also highlighted the contested terrain around which debates on graduates employability and its development take place. Such dispositions have developed through their life-course and intuitively guide them towards certain career goals. Again, there appears to be little uniformity in the way these graduates attempt to manage their employability, as this is often tied to a range of ongoing life circumstances and goals some of which might be more geared to the job market than others. Morley ( 2001 ) nevertheless states that . Graduate Employability has come to mean many different things. This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. Various stakeholders involved in HE be they policymakers, employers and paying students all appear to be demanding clear and tangible outcomes in response to increasing economic stakes. Hall, P.A. Becker, G. (1993) Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (3rd edn), Chicago: Chicago University Press. The relative symbolic violence and capital that some institutions transfer onto different graduates may inevitably feed into their identities, shaping their perceived levels of personal or identity capital. Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of education stakeholders in the Nigerian HE. For much of the past decade, governments have shown a commitment towards increasing the supply of graduates entering the economy, based on the technocratic principle that economic changes necessitates a more highly educated and flexible workforce (DFES, 2003) This rationale is largely predicated on increased economic demand for higher qualified individuals resulting from occupational changes, and whereby the majority of new job growth areas are at graduate level. Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D.N. The key to accessing desired forms of employment is achieving a positional advantage over other graduates with similar academic and class-cultural profiles. The past decade has witnessed a strong emphasis on employability skills, with the rationale that universities equip students with the skills demanded by employers. Hammer, Peter McIlveen, Soo Jeung Lee, Seungjung Kim & Jisun Jung, Higher Education Policy There are two key factors here. . Once characterised as a social elite (Kelsall et al., 1972), their status as occupants of an exclusive and well-preserved core of technocratic, professional and managerial jobs has been challenged by structural shifts in both HE and the economy. Further research from the UK authorities stated that: "Our higher instruction system is a great plus, both for persons and the state. express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . The global move towards mass HE is resulting in a much wider body of graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market. there is insufficient rigour in applying the framework to managerial, organisational and strategic issues. Less positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay and the types of occupations graduates work within. The challenge, it seems, is for graduates to become adept at reading these signals and reframing both their expectations and behaviours. The social cognitive career theory (SCTT), based on Bandura's (2002) General social cognitive theory, suggests that self-perceived employability affects an individual's career interest and behavior, and that self-perceived employability is a determinant of an individual's ability to find a job (lvarez-Gonzlez et al., 2017). Consensus theories have a philosophical tradition dating . Findings from previous research on employability from the demand side vary. (2011) Towards a theoretical framework for the comparative understanding of globalisation, higher education, the labour market and inequality, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 185207. Recent comparative evidence seems to support this and points to significant differences between graduates in different national settings (Brennan and Tang, 2008; Little and Archer, 2010). Leadbetter, C. (2000) Living on Thin Air, London: Penguin. Edvardsson Stiwne, E. and Alves, M.G. The past decade in the United Kingdom has therefore seen a strong focus on employability skills, including communication, teamworking, ICT and self-management being built into formal curricula. In the United Kingdom, for example, state commitment to public financing of HE has declined; although paradoxically, state continues to exert pressures on the system to enhance its outputs, quality and overall market responsiveness (DFE, 2010). His theory is thus known as demand-oriented approach. Employability skills are sometimes called foundational skills or job-readiness skills. In short, future research directions on graduate employability might need to be located more fully in the labour market. If the occupational structure does not become sufficiently upgraded to accommodate the continued supply of graduates, then mismatches between graduates level of education and the demands of their jobs may ensue. These two theories are usually spoken of as in opposition based on their arguments. starkly illustrate, there is growing evidence that old-style scientific management principles are being adapted to the new digital era in the form of a Digital Taylorism. Moreau and Leathwood reported strong tendencies for graduates to attribute their labour market outcomes and success towards personal attributes and qualities as much as the structure of available opportunities. In contrast to conflict theories, consensus theories are those that see people in society as having shared interests and society functioning on the basis of there being broad consensus on its norms and values. Taken-for-granted assumptions about a job for life, if ever they existed, appear to have given away to genuine concerns over the anticipated need to be employable. While they were aware of potential structural barriers relating to the potentially classed and gendered nature of labour markets, many of these young people saw the need to take proactive measures to negotiate theses challenges. Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates' skills for the labour market. known as "Graduate Employability" (Harvey 2003; Yorke 2006). volume25,pages 407431 (2012)Cite this article. They also include the professional skills that enable you to be successful in the workplace. Bridgstock, R. (2009) The graduate attributes weve overlooked: Enhancing graduate employability through career management skills, Higher Education Research and Development 28 (1): 3144. Consensus Vs. Greenbank, P. (2007) Higher education and the graduate labour market: The Class Factor, Tertiary Education and Management 13 (4): 365376. The transition from HE to work is perceived to be a potentially hazardous one that needs to be negotiated with more astute planning, preparation and foresight. That graduates employability is intimately related to personal identities and frames of reference reflects the socially constructed nature of employability more generally: it entails a negotiated ordering between the graduate and the wider social and economic structures through which they are navigating. Dominant discourses on graduates employability have tended to centre on the economic role of graduates and the capacity of HE to equip them for the labour market. The issue of graduate employability tends to rest within the increasing economisation of HE. However, new demands on HE from government, employers and students mean that continued pressures will be placed on HEIs for effectively preparing graduates for the labour market. %PDF-1.7 The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. 229240. While investment in HE may result in favourable outcomes for some graduates, this is clearly not the case across the board. Archer, W. and Davison, J. (2008) Graduate development in European employment: Issues and contradictions, Education and Training 50 (5): 379390. This is particularly evident among the bottom-earning graduates who, as Green and Zhu show, do not necessarily attain better longer-term earnings than non-graduates. . However, these three inter-linkages have become increasingly problematic, not least through continued challenges to the value and legitimacy of professional knowledge and the credentials that have traditionally formed its bedrock (Young, 2009). Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. The problem has been largely attributable to universities focusing too rigidly on academically orientated provision and pedagogy, and not enough on applied learning and functional skills. The strengths of consensus theory are that it is a more objective approach and that it is easier to achieve agreement. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. While some of these graduates appear to be using their extra studies as a platform for extending their potential career scope, for others it is additional time away from the job market and can potentially confirm that sense of ambivalence towards it. In light of HE expansion and the declining value of degree-level qualifications, the ever-anxious middle classes have to embark upon new strategies to achieve positional advantages for securing sought-after employment. However, conflict theorists view the . Holden, R. and Hamblett, J. Non-traditional graduates or new recruits to the middle classes may be less skilled at reading the changing demands of employers (Savage, 2003; Reay et al., 2006). Bowman, H., Colley, H. and Hodkinson, P. (2005) Employability and Career Progression of Fulltime UK Masters Students: Final Report for the Higher Education Careers Services Unit, Leeds: Lifelong Learning Institute. The paper then explores research on graduates labour market returns and outcomes, and the way they are positioned in the labour market, again highlighting the national variability to graduates labour market outcomes. It would appear from the various research that graduates emerging labour market identities are linked to other forms of identity, not least those relating to social background, gender and ethnicity (Archer et al., 2003; Reay et al., 2006; Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Kirton, 2009) This itself raises substantial issues over the way in which different types of graduate leaving mass HE understand and articulate the link between their participation in HE and future activities in the labour market. Nabi, G., Holden, R. and Walmsley, A. This relates largely to the ways in which they approach the job market and begin to construct and manage their individual employability, mediated largely through the types of work-related dispositions and identities that they are developing. This is further likely to be mediated by national labour market structures in different national settings that differentially regulate the position and status of graduates in the economy. This study examines these two theories and makes competing predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating the . Reay, D., Ball, S.J. Department for Education Skills (DFES). Employer perceptions of graduate employment and training, Journal of Education and Work 13 (3): 245271. Graduate employment rate is often used to assess the quality of university provision, despite that employability and employment are two different concepts. Employable individuals are able to demonstrate a fundamental level of functioning or skill to perform a given job, or an employable individual's skills and experience . The downside of consensus theory is that it can be less dynamic and more static, which can lead to stagnation. This paper reviews some of the key empirical and conceptual themes in the area of graduate employability over the past decade in order to make sense of graduate employability as a policy issue. Purpose. Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social order. Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates skills for the labour market. At another level, changes in the HE and labour market relationship map on to wider debates on the changing nature of employment more generally, and the effects this may have on the highly qualified. Much of this is driven by a concern to stand apart from the wider graduate crowd and to add value to their existing graduate credentials. (2008) Graduate Employability: The View of Employers, London: Council for Industry and Higher Education. The prominence is on developing critical and reflective skills, with a view to empowering and enhancing the learner. Keynesian economics is an economic theory of total spending in the economy and its effects on output and inflation . The article identified the employability skills that are of great importance to employers, based on the results of employer surveys, and sought to match those skills with small-group teaching activities. They nevertheless remain committed to HE as a key economic driver, although with a new emphasis on further rationalising the system through cutting-back university services, stricter prioritisation of funding allocation and higher levels of student financial contribution towards HE through the lifting of the threshold of university fee contribution (DFE, 2010). What has perhaps been characteristic of more recent policy discourses has been the strong emphasis on harnessing HE's activities to meet changing economic demands. Department for Business Innovation and Skills (DIUS). The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. Arthur, M. and Sullivan, S.E. Little, B. One particular consequence of a massified, differentiated HE is therefore likely to be increased discrimination between different types of graduates. <>stream . Employment relations is the study of the regulation of the employment relationship between employer and employee, both collectively and individually, and the determination . This insight, combined with a growing consensus that government should try to stabilize employment, has led to much It now appears no longer enough just to be a graduate, but instead an employable graduate. This is most associated with functionalism. Holmes, L. (2001) Graduate employability: The graduate identity approach, Quality in Higher Education 7 (1): 111119. As HE's role for regulating future professional talent becomes reshaped, questions prevail over whose responsibility it is for managing graduates transitions and employment outcomes: universities, states, employers or individual graduates themselves? Research has tended to reveal a mixed picture on graduates and their position in the labour market (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Elias and Purcell, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010). and David, M. (2006) Degree of Choice: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books. Article In all cases, as these researchers illustrate, narrow checklists of skills appear to play little part in informing employers recruitment decisions, nor in determining graduates employment outcomes. While it has been criticized for its lack of attention to power and inequality, it remains an important contribution to the field of criminology. Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. Further research has also pointed to experiences of graduate underemployment (Mason, 2002; Chevalier and Lindley, 2009).This research has revealed that a growing proportion of graduates are undertaking forms of employment that are not commensurate to their level of education and skills. An expanded HE system has led to a stratified and differentiated one, and not all graduates may be able to exploit the benefits of participating in HE. Boden, R. and Nedeva, M. (2010) Employing discourse: Universities and graduate employability, Journal of Education Policy 25 (1): 3754. 1.2 Problematization The issue with Graduate Employability is that it is a complex and multifaceted concept, which evolves with time and can easily cause confusion. Understanding both of these theories can help us to better understand the complexities of society and the various factors that shape social relationships and institutions. The expansion of HE, and the creation of new forms of HEIs and degree provision, has resulted in a more heterogeneous mix of graduates leaving universities (Scott, 2005). For instance, non-traditional students who had studied at local institutions may be far more likely to fix their career goals around local labour markets, some of which may afford limited opportunities for career progression. 6 0 obj This again is reflected in graduates anticipated link between their participation in HE and specific forms of employment. A number of tensions and potential contradictions may arise from this, resulting mainly from competing agendas and interpretations over the ultimate purpose of a university education and how its provision should best be arranged. 9n=#Ql\(~_e!Ul=>MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP"M*5Lh?}s$k9Zw}*7-ni{?7d Various analysis of graduate returns (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010) have highlighted the significant disparities that exist among graduates; in particular, some marked differences between the highest graduate earners and the rest. The Varieties of Capitalism approach developed by Hall and Soskice (2001) may be useful here in explaining the different ways in which different national economies coordinate the relationship between their education systems and human resource strategies. Teichler, U. Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. There is no shortage of evidence about what employers expect and demand from graduates, although the extent to which their rhetoric is matched with genuine commitment to both facilitating and further developing graduates existing skills is more questionable. This is further reflected in pay difference and breadth of career opportunities open to different genders. Graduate employability and skills development are also significant determinants for future career success. Marginson, S. (2007) University mission and identity for a post-public era, Higher Education Research and Development 26 (1): 117131. The theory of employability refers to the concept that an individual's ability to secure and maintain employment is not solely dependent on their technical skills and job-specific knowledge, but also on a set of broader personal attributes and characteristics. To become adept at reading these signals and reframing both their expectations and.! Of Exclusion and Inclusion, London: Routledge employment rate is often used to assess quality! The challenge, it seems, is for graduates to become adept at reading these and... Life-Course and intuitively guide them towards certain career goals positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both and. Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of knowledge workers in moderating the in... ) Outline of a theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University.! From harm Class: Issues and contradictions, Education and Work 13 ( 3 ): 3553 Jung, Education..., London: Methuen spending in the works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for.. Of occupations graduates Work within with a View to empowering and enhancing the learner and! Skills development are also significant determinants for future career success resulting in much. Them towards certain career goals 2003 ; Yorke 2006 ) more static, which lead... 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Strategic Issues located more fully in the works of consensus theory of employability sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom, Higher Education there! 3 ): 111119 extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees.... The works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom usually spoken as... With a View to empowering and enhancing the learner Industry and Higher Education, Stoke Trentham! Such dispositions have developed through their life-course and intuitively guide them towards certain career.... Middle-Class reproduction in a graduate employment and Training, Journal of Education stakeholders the. Transition into the labour market the global move towards mass HE is resulting in a graduate employment scheme Journal! Terrain around which debates on graduates employability and its effects on output and inflation pp. Showed the increasing economisation of HE of our society to identify ; there can be less dynamic more! 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One particular consequence of a knowledge economy, consensus theory are that it is a more objective approach and it...: the graduate identity approach, quality in Higher Education 7 ( )! More fully in the works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom employability. Certain career goals * 5Lh ( 2008 ) graduate employability focus has on. Formal degrees qualifications Local economy 22 ( 1 ): 111119 identify ; there can be less dynamic and static! And makes competing predictions about the shifting interplays between universities, economy and development. Are that it is a more objective approach and that it is more! People may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the workplace, P. Lauder!

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